Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies
Volume 16, Issue 1 , Pages 14-21 , January 2012

Understanding gait control in post-stroke: Implications for management

  • Rajesh Verma, DM (Neurology), DNB (Neurology) (Professor)
  • ,
  • Kamal Narayan Arya, MOT, PhD (Scholar) (Sr. Occupational Therapist)

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Pt. Deendayal Upadhyaya Institute for the Physically Handicapped, University of Delhi, Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, Govt. of India, New Delhi 110002, India.
  • ,
  • Pawan Sharma, MD (Medicine), Sr. Resident, DM (Neurology)-III
  • ,
  • R.K. Garg, DM (Neurology) (Professor & HOD)

Received 7 September 2010 ,Revised 2 December 2010 ,Accepted 3 December 2010.

References 

  1. Abe H, Michimata A, Sugawara K, Sugaya N, Izumi S. Improving gait stability in stroke hemiplegic patients with a plastic ankle-foot orthosis. Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2009;218(3):193–199
  2. Ada L, Vattanasilp W, O’Dwyer NJ, Crosbie J. Does spasticity contribute to walking dysfunction after stroke?. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 1998;64(5):628–635
  3. Alexander GE, Crutcher MD, DeLong MR. Basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, “prefrontal” and “limbic” functions. Progress in Brain Research. 1990;85:119–146
  4. Alexander LD, Black SE, Patterson KK, Gao F, Danells CJ, McIlroy WE. Association between gait asymmetry and brain lesion location in stroke patients. Stroke. 2009;40(2):537–544
  5. Balasubramanian CK, Bowden MG, Neptune RR, Kautz SA. Relationship between step length asymmetry and walking performance in subjects with chronic hemiparesis. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2007;88(1):43–49
  6. Bale M, Strand LI. Does functional strength training of the leg in subacute stroke improve physical performance? A pilot randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2008;22(10–11):911–921
  7. Barbeau H. Locomotor training in neurorehabilitation: emerging rehabilitation concepts. Neurorehabilitation & Neural Repair. 2003;17(1):3–11
  8. Beauchamp MK, Skrela M, Southmayd D, Trick J, Kessel MV, Brunton K, et al. Immediate effects of cane use on gait symmetry in individuals with subacute stroke. Physiotherapy Canada. 2009;61(3):154–160
  9. Beloozerova IN, Sirota MG. Cortically controlled gait adjustments in the cat. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1998;16(860):550–553
  10. Bohannon R. Comfortable and maximum walking speed of adults aged 20 to 79 years: reference values and determinants. Age Ageing. 1997;26:15–19
  11. Bohannon RW. Muscle strength and muscle training after stroke. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine. 2007;39(1):14–20
  12. Brandstater ME, de Bruin H, Gowland C, Clark BM. Hemiplegic gait: analysis of temporal variables. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 1983;64:583–587
  13. Chen CL, Chen HC, Tang SFT, Wu CY, Cheng PT, Hong WH. Gait performance with compensatory adaptations in stroke patients with different degrees of motor recovery. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2003;82:925–935
  14. Chu TT. Biomechanics of ankle-foot orthoses: past, present, and future. Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation. 2001;7(4):19–28
  15. Corrêa FI, Soares F, Andrade DV, Gondo RM, Peres JA, Fernandes AO, et al. Muscle activity during gait following stroke. Arquivos de neuro-psiquiatria. 2005;63(3B):847–851
  16. de Oliveira CB, de Medeiros IR, Frota NA, Greters ME, Conforto AB. Balance control in hemiparetic stroke patients: main tools for evaluation. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development. 2008;45(8):1215–1226
  17. Dettmann MA, Linder MT, Sepic SB. Relationships among walking performance, postural stability, and functional assessments of the hemiplegic patient. American Journal of Physical Medicine. 1987;66:77–90
  18. Dickstein R, Deutsch JE. Motor imagery in physical therapist practice. Physical Therapy. 2007;87(7):942–953
  19. Dickstein R, Dunsky A, Marcovitz E. Motor imagery for gait rehabilitation in post-stroke hemiparesis. Physical Therapy. 2004;84(12):1167–1177
  20. Dietz V. Interaction between central programs and afferent input in the control of posture and locomotion. Journal of Biomechanics. 1996;29:841–844
  21. Dobkin BH. Strategies for stroke rehabilitation. Lancet Neurology. 2004;3(9):528–536
  22. Dobkin BH. Clinical practice. Rehabilitation after stroke. New England Journal of Medicine. 2005;352(16):1677–1684
  23. Dobkin BH, Firestine A, West M, Saremi K, Woods R. Ankle dorsiflexion as an fMRI paradigm to assay motor control for walking during rehabilitation. Neuroimage. 2004;23:370–381
  24. Drew T, Kalaska J, Krouchev N. Muscle synergies during locomotion in the cat: a model for motor cortex control. Journal of Physiology. 2008;586(5):1239–1245
  25. Duncan PW, Zorowitz R, Bates B, Choi JY, Glasberg JJ, Graham GD, et al. Management of adult stroke rehabilitation care: a clinical practice guideline. Stroke. 2005;36(9):e100–e143
  26. Enzinger C, Dawes H, Johansen-Berg H, Wade D, Bogdanovic M, Collett J, et al. Brain activity changes associated with treadmill training after stroke. Stroke. 2009;40(7):2460–2467
  27. Eser F, Yavuzer G, Karakus D, Karaoglan B. The effect of balance training on motor recovery and ambulation after stroke: a randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Physical Rehabilitation Medicine. 2008;44(1):19–25
  28. Forster A, Young J. Incidence and consequences of falls due to stroke: a systematic inquiry. British Medical Journal. 1995;311:83–86
  29. Gaviria M, Angeli MD, Chavet P, Pelissier J, Peruchon E, Rabischong P. Plantar dynamics of hemiplegic gait: a methodological approach. Gait Posture. 1996;4:297–305
  30. Gresham GE, Alexander D, Bishop DS, Giuliani C, Goldberg G, Holland A, et al. American Heart Association Prevention Conference. IV. Prevention and rehabilitation of stroke. Rehabilitation Stroke. 1997;28(7):1522–1526
  31. Hendricks HT, van Limbeek J, Geurts AC, Zwarts MJ. Motor recovery after stroke: a systematic review of the literature. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2002;83:1629–1637
  32. Hicks AL, Ginis KA. Treadmill training after spinal cord injury: it’s not just about the walking. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development. 2008;45(2):241–248
  33. Hsu AL, Tang PF, Jan MH. Analysis of impairments influencing gait velocity and asymmetry of hemiplegic patients after mild to moderate stroke. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2003;84:1185–1193
  34. Hwang S, Jeon HS, Yi CH, Kwon OY, Cho SH, You SH. Locomotor imagery training improves gait performance in people with chronic hemiparetic stroke: a controlled clinical trial. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2010;24(6):514–522
  35. Jorgensen HS, Nakayama H, Raaschou HO, Olsen TS. Recovery of walking function in stroke patients: the Copenhagen stroke study. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 1995;76:27–32
  36. Kim CM, Eng JJ. Symmetry in vertical ground reaction force is accompanied by symmetry in temporal but not distance variables of gait in persons with stroke. Gait Posture. 2003;18:23–28
  37. Kluding P, Gajewski B. Lowerextremity strength differences predict activity limitations in people with chronic stroke. Physical Therapy. 2009;89:73–81
  38. Lacourse MG, Turner JA, Randolph-Orr E, Schandler SL, Cohen MJ. Cerebral and cerebellar sensorimotor plasticity following motor imagery-based mental practice of a sequential movement. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development. 2004;41(4):505–524
  39. Laufer Y, Dickstein R, Chefez Y, Marcovitz E. The effect of treadmill training on the ambulation of stroke survivors in the early stages of rehabilitation: a randomized study. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development. 2001;38(1):69–78
  40. Lindquist AR, Prado CL, Barros RM, Mattioli R, da Costa PH, Salvini TF. Gait training combining partial body-weight support, a treadmill, and functional electrical stimulation: effects on poststroke gait. Physical Therapy. 2007;87(9):1144–1154
  41. Lord SE, McPherson KM, McNaugton HK, Rochester L, Weatherall M. Community ambulation following stroke: how important and obtainable is it, and what measures appear predictive?. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2004;85:234–239
  42. Lord SE, Rochester L. Measurement of community ambulation after stroke: current status and future developments. Stroke. 2005;36(7):1457–1461
  43. MacKay-Lyons MJ. Central pattern generation of locomotion: a review of the evidence. Physical Therapy. 2002;82(1):69–83
  44. Mayer M. Clinical neurokinesiology of spastic gait. Bratisl Lek Listy. 2002;103(1):3–11
  45. Morris ME, Matyas TA, Bach TM, Goldie PA. Electrogoniometric feedback: its effect on genu recurvatum in stroke. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 1992;73:1147–1152
  46. Moseley AM, Stark A, Cameron ID, Pollock A. Treadmill training and body weight support for walking after stroke. Cochrane Database Systematic Review. 2005;19(4):CD002840
  47. Muellbacher W, Facchini S, Boroojerdi B, Hallett M. Changes in motor cortex excitability during ipsilateral hand muscle activation in humans. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2000;111(2):344–349
  48. Nielsen JB. How we walk: central control of muscle activity during human walking. Neuroscientist. 2003;9(3):195–204
  49. Norkin CC, Olney SJ. Examination of gait. In:  O' Sullivan SB,  Schmitz TJ editor. Physical Rehabilitation. fourth ed.. New Delhi: Jaypee Publication; 2007;
  50. Norton JA, Mushahwar VK. Afferent inputs to mid- and lower-lumbar spinal segments are necessary for stepping in spinal cats. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2010;1198:10–20
  51. Olney SJ, Richards CL. Hemiparetic gait following stroke, part I: characteristics. Gait Posture. 1996;4:136–148
  52. Olney SJ, Monga TN, Costigan PA. Mechanical energy of walking of stroke patients. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 1986;67:92–98
  53. Olney SJ, Griffin MP, Mc Bride ID. Temporal, kinematic and kinetic variables related to gait speed in subjects with hemiplegia: a regression approach. Physical Therapy. 1994;74:872–885
  54. Ozrigin N, Bolukabsi N, Mehmet B, Sevim O. Kinematic gait analysis in hemiplegic patients. Scandavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine. 1993;25:51–55
  55. Page SJ, Szaflarski JP, Eliassen JC, Pan H, Cramer SC. Cortical plasticity following motor skill learning during mental practice in stroke. Neurorehabilitation & Neural Repair. 2009;23(4):382–388
  56. Patterson KK, Gage WH, Brooks D, Black SE, McIlroy WE. Evaluation of gait symmetry after stroke: a comparison of current methods and recommendations for standardization. Gait Posture. 2010;31(2):241–246
  57. Perry J. Gait Analysis: Normal and Pathologic Function. Thorofare, NJ: Slack, Inc; 1992;
  58. Perry J, Giovan P, Harris LJ, Montgomery J, Azaria M. The determinants of muscle action in the hemiparetic lower extremity (and their effect on the examination procedure). Clinical Orthopaedic Related Research. 1978;131:71–89
  59. Perry J, Garrett M, Gronley JK, Mulroy SJ. Classification of walking handicap in the stroke population. Stroke. 1995;26:982–989
  60. Peurala SH, Airaksinen O, Huuskonen P, Jäkälä P, Juhakoski M, Sandell K, et al. Effects of intensive therapy using gait trainer or floor walking exercises early after stroke. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine. 2009;41(3):166–173
  61. Reisman DS, Wityk R, Silver K, Bastian AJ. Locomotor adaptation on a split-belt treadmill can improve walking symmetry post-stroke. Brain. 2007;130(Pt7):1861–1872
  62. Roth EJ, Merbitz C, Mroczek K, Dugan SA, Suh WW. Hemiplegic gait. Relationships between walking speed and other temporal parameters. American Journal of Physical Medicine. 1997;76(2):128–133
  63. Schmidt RA. Motor Control and Learning: a Behavioral Emphasis. fourth ed.. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, USA; 2005;
  64. States RA, Pappas E, Salem Y. Overground physical therapy gait training for chronic stroke patients with mobility deficits. Stroke. 2009;40:e627–e628
  65. Sütbeyaz S, Yavuzer G, Sezer N, Koseoglu BF. Mirror therapy enhances lower-extremity motor recovery and motor functioning after stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2007;88(5):555–559
  66. Werner C, Bardeleben A, Mauritz KH, Kirker S, Hesse S. Treadmill training with partial body weight support and physiotherapy in stroke patients: a preliminary comparison. European Journal of Neurology. 2002;9(6):639–644
  67. Wevers L, van de Port I, Vermue M, Mead G, Kwakkel G. Effects of task-oriented circuit class training on walking competency after stroke: a systematic review. Stroke. 2009;40(7):2450–2459
  68. Yang JF, Gorassini M. Spinal and brain control of human walking: implications for retraining of walking. Neuroscientist. 2006;12(5):379–389
  69. Yavuzer G, Eser F, Karakus D, Karaoglan B. The effects of balance training on gait late after stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2006;20:960–969

PII: S1360-8592(10)00189-0

doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2010.12.005

Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies
Volume 16, Issue 1 , Pages 14-21 , January 2012